Defence of Infanticide

Argumentative Essay Sample on the Offence/Defence of Infanticide Crime, as the violation of law, challenges the very foundations of the social order, thereby making its control and punishment one of the most vital functions of the modern state. One of the key elements of establishing criminal responsibility for an offence is the â€Å"exercise of the person’s will† towards the commission of the offence. As is evident from this, any intervening conditions which hamper or otherwise affect the â€Å"exercise of will† – such as mental illness are bound to have a bearing on the outcome of the prosecution. The problem currently under scrutiny outlines a scenario where a woman, driven by mental disturbances following parturition, repeatedly smothers her baby leading eventually to its death. Following an outpouring of public sympathy in favour of the woman, the State Government is prompted to consider the creation of a sui generis defence protecting women who commit infanticide. This article explores the matrix of legal issues surrounding the proposed introduction of a substantive offence (and defence) of â€Å"infanticide† into the Criminal Code of Queensland. Specifically, the following wording has been suggested: â€Å"A woman who by any wilful act or omission, causes the death of her child (being a child under the age of 12 months), and who was at the time not fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child, and the balance of her mind being, by reason thereof, disturbed, is guilty of a crime, which is called infanticide, although, the offence would, but for this section, have amounted to murder.† Drawing upon an assessment of similar provisions in other jurisdictions, it is argued that the introduction of such a law in Queensland is necessary. Furthermore it is considered whether the availability of the â€Å"Diminished Responsibility† defence under Queensland law and the establishment of Mental Health Courts in Queensland to decide the state of mind of persons charged with offences makes the introduction of a new offence/defence of infanticide unnecessary. However, relying on recommendations of a recent report of the Law Commission of the United Kingdom, the claim for maintaining a distinct offence of infanticide is found to be valid. History of Infanticide The Law Reforms Commission of the State of New South Wales in its 83rd Report on â€Å"Partial Defences to Murder: Provocation and Infanticide† offers an interesting socio-legal account of infanticide from the middle ages to the early 20th century. Tracing the history of infanticide in England and Australia from its roots as a primitive method of â€Å"population control†, to early legal attempts of controlling the practice in the 17th century by penalizing â€Å"concealment of birth† , the Report sheds light on the extent to which infanticide was regarded as ‘commonplace’. â€Å"The killing of infants occurred in a wide variety of circumstances, from abandonment, exposure and ill-treatment to intentional killings and an entire â€Å"baby farming† industry. Indeed its prevalence indicated that it was very much a â€Å"part of everyday life† It is educative in this context to refer to the account provided in the report, of the fate these â€Å"reproduction-related crimes† suffered. Thus, the report states that although the law itself was severe, indictment rates were relatively low and actual convictions extremely rare. This was because of indifferent policing and a reported reluctance on the part of juries and judges to convict while the offence was punished capitally. Factors that contributed to this reluctance to convict included perceptions such as ones that held that â€Å"because the victims were children, their loss was considered to be inestimable and therefore less† or that â€Å"because of generally high infant mortality rates, the death of children was not uncommon and this may have made a deliberate killing more acceptable†. If you need custom essay, research paper, thesis or term paper on Sociology issues feel free to contact our professional custom writing service.

Expected Value of a Binomial Distribution

Expected Value of a Binomial Distribution Binomial distributions are an important class of discrete probability distributions. These types of distributions are a series of n independent Bernoulli trials, each of which has a constant probability p of success. As with any probability distribution we would like to know what its mean or center is. For this we are really asking, â€Å"What is the expected value of the binomial distribution?† Intuition vs. Proof If we carefully think about a binomial distribution, it is not difficult to determine that the expected value of this type of probability distribution is np. For a few quick examples of this, consider the following: If we toss 100 coins, and X is the number of heads, the expected value of X is 50 (1/2)100.If we are taking a multiple choice test with 20 questions and each question has four choices (only one of which is correct), then guessing randomly would mean that we would only expect to get (1/4)20 5 questions correct. In both of these examples we see that  E[ X ] n p. Two cases is hardly enough to reach a conclusion. Although intuition is a good tool to guide us, it is not enough to form a mathematical argument and to prove that something is true. How do we prove definitively that the expected value of this distribution is indeed np? From the definition of expected value and the probability mass function for the binomial distribution of n trials of probability of success p, we can demonstrate that our intuition matches with the fruits of mathematical rigor. We need to be somewhat careful in our work and nimble in our manipulations of the binomial coefficient that is given by the formula for combinations. We begin by using the formula: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x0n x C(n, x)px(1-p)n – x. Since each term of the summation is multiplied by x, the value of the term corresponding to x 0 will be 0, and so we can actually write: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x 1n x C(n , x) p x (1 – p) n – x . By manipulating the factorials involved in the expression for C(n, x) we can rewrite x C(n, x) n C(n – 1, x – 1). This is true because: x C(n, x) x n!/(x!(n – x)!) n!/((x – 1)!(n – x)!) n(n – 1)!/((x – 1)!((n – 1) – (x – 1))!) n C(n – 1, x – 1). It follows that: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x 1n n C(n – 1, x – 1) p x (1 – p) n – x . We factor out the n and one p from the above expression: E[ X ] np ÃŽ £ x 1n C(n – 1, x – 1) p x – 1 (1 – p) (n – 1) - (x – 1) . A change of variables r x – 1 gives us: E[ X ] np ÃŽ £ r 0n – 1 C(n – 1, r) p r (1 – p) (n – 1) - r . By the binomial formula, (x y)k ÃŽ £ r 0 kC( k, r)xr yk – r the summation above can be rewritten: E[ X ] (np) (p (1 – p))n – 1 np. The above argument has taken us a long way. From beginning only with the definition of expected value and probability mass function for a binomial distribution, we have proved that what our intuition told us. The expected value of the binomial distribution B( n, p) is n p.

Reasons for going to the gym Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reasons for going to the gym - Research Paper Example Keeping physically fit has been one of the primary concerns of most people in the wake of increased prevalence of lifestyle-associated illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes and obesity. Among the remedies advocated for in most chronic diseases, physical exercises supplement the basic treatments. Gym facilities are equipped with specialized departments depending on the requirements of an individual. For instance, there exist cardio respiratory fitness departments in some facilities, which deals with clients seeking to exercise but are limited by health conditions. In such departments, equipments are tailored to suit the needs of a patient for his/her recovery. In addition, gym facilities provide centers for ones improvement in terms of boosting self-esteem. A healthy self-esteem is a requisite for inner peace and happiness and can be achieved as one exercise. In today’s society, there has been a standard placed on body weight in terms of body mass index, which plays a cruci al role as a reason to visit gym centers. As one exercises, excess body weight is lost thus placing one in the category of those deemed as physically fit, which is essential in boosting one’s self esteem. ... Body fitness is regarded as one the key reasons as to why people visit the gym. The gym as a fitness centre aims at being a place where one can regenerate and improve bodily functions by performing discrete exercise, which relate to the body (Sassatelli 3). Competitions have been organized in search of the perfection with regard to baselines formulated by groups of gym enthusiastic. The care granted to the body in search of psychophysical wellbeing is regarded as of great importance to persons participating in sports. This gives them an upper hand as well as a fighting chance to success within the competition. Gym activities are thus taken as an investment for the future to those participating in sporting activities as they prepare themselves for competition. This is common for professional body builders who have to keep fit and maintain their physical appeal in order to effectively, participate in competitions. A significant proportion of the population visit gym facilities for ther apeutic purposes. Exercise activities are known for the relaxation effect that follows the exercises. This is due to the release of endorphins, which are regarded as feel-good hormones (Oyedele). With a daily exercise routine, it is possible to experience the full effect of these hormones. This is bound to have a positive effect to individuals who workout, keeping high spirits all day long. The gym provides a wide range of equipments for its clients who may find it expensive to purchase. The equipment is normally of a better quality than the clients can afford. Gym facilities obtain their equipment in bulk and, therefore, at a relatively cheaper price as compared to individual purchases. This way, gym members can effective